How does the mobile phone affects the relationship between parents and Essay

How does the mobile phone affects the relationship between parents and children - Essay Example This study examined the relationship between duration of adolescents’ technology use and the relationship with their parents and in this regard three types of technology were considered namely, computers, cell phones and video games. These findings were attributed to the fact that adolescents more commonly use cell phones than the internet to maintain a good relationship with their parents. Therefore, it is possible that cell phones aid parent-teen closeness as it allows them to stay in touch when they are not together. Also, most adolescents reported spending relatively little time playing video games. That may be why video games did not impact their relationship with parents. As technology evolves, its everyday purpose is becoming increasingly common, especially among successive generations due to its indisputable benefits, especially of better communication. With upcoming methods of communication and sharing information emanating every day, come the shortcomings of a world hectic with technology. A recent article in the New York Times suggests that the infatuation with technology and cell phones in particular is taking away from face-to-face social interactions (Blackman, 2010). In -person communication seems to be deteriorating as people are increasingly connected wherever they are through their computers and cell phones or enthusiastic on video games instead of engaging in conversation with the people around them. For the purposes of this study technology was categorized into three namely, cell phones, computers and video games. Computer use includes the use of the internet, both online and offline activities including social networking, doing homework and playing games. Cell phone use in addition to talking and texting includes new capabilities of cell phones such as internet related activities and also playing games. Video games refer to all kinds of gaming platforms outside of computers and cell phones,

Will Positive behavior Modification Decrease the Amount of Negative-Seeking Attention of a Child Essay Example for Free

Will Positive behavior Modification Decrease the Amount of Negative-Seeking Attention of a Child Essay Teaching is a challenging profession especially if the teacher is handling children. Children, when they want to have attention, will do anything just to have it. They do anything positively or negatively just to have the attention that he wants. Children most of the time do it positively, however some would do it negatively. Say for example, in a school setting, the child may seek for the attention of the teacher thus in class he misbehaves. He doesn’t really care as to what attention he would be getting, be it praise or a reprimand, for as long as he gets the attention, he likes it. To a child an attention from an adult is very important. Sometimes, it is just but normal that children seek approval and attention but if this is too much, this could become a problem because the child would tend to be controlling. This action may then result in a situation where the child controls your life. The very reason for misbehavior in young children is to get attention, and in their later life, this may cause discipline problems (Severe, 2000). One of my 5th grade students, a male one, misbehaves that he is disturbing the class and distracts me as well. When he does this, I reprimand him however what he does is that he behaves for a while and then misbehaves again. I wanted to figure out what seems to be the problem with this child and I found out that he just wants some attention. He has this negative-attention seeking behavior wherein he does tricks just to get anyone’s attention. Everyday he has new tricks that he plays so he can have the attention that he wants. One time he threw a crumpled paper towards his classmate just to get the attention of his classmate. Another day this same student loudly talked to his classmate that distracted our discussion. Everyday he gets reprimands from me and he does the same thing again after a while. I started observing the child when he is playing with his friends. He also does tricks to get the attention of his playmates. I asked the other teachers who handled this child if they have observed this behavior and they said yes. This child really needs attention, no matter what he does and what he gets as long as he can have the attention that he wants. He may act negatively just to get the attention he does not care. He wants attention. I observed this particular child from day to day and consulted some books and studies about this kind of behavior of a child and came up with a plan on how to decrease the negative-seeking behavior of this child. This plan would use the positive behavioral modification. The question however is, ‘Will positive behavioral modification decrease the amount of negative-seeking behavior of my 5th grade male student? ’ My plan of action was to employ a positive behavior modification wherein interventions would be done by using techniques such as counter-conditioning, reinforcement and shaping to modify one’s behavior. The first strategy that I employed is the ‘random positive attention’. In this kind of strategy, one must ignore the student’s attention-seeking behaviors while some positive attention would be given at the same time. Say for example if the child would make a noise, just try to look at him in the eye and smile at him. This way he would notice that he is being given the attention. Another strategy is to give positive attention and approval to their behavior when appropriate. This would help the child understand his behavior better (How to handle Attention, 2008). This could be helpful because the child would realize that he is appreciated. This may help lessen his attention seeking behavior because he may feel he is given due credit for. He is gaining the attention that he needs from the people that he wants it from. Say for example when the child perfects his score in his exam, the teacher praises him or if he fails the teacher gives him encouragement thus the child would feel that he has a worth in the class because the teacher noticed him. Another way to handle the attention seeking behavior is to appreciate his positive behaviors and do not give negative attention to his misbehavior (How to handle Attention, 2008). In this way the child may realize that he can only get the attention that he wants when he is doing well. In this way he might change his mind on misbehaving he would try to do positive things to get recognized rather than misbehave and get nothing. Say for example when a child makes noise that disturbs the class, the teacher would simply look at him and smile, that would let this child realize that he is recognized but this is just a temporary recognition and when the child keeps quiet the teacher should acknowledge this in front of the class that the child would feel that he is more appreciated when he is doing the things that are expected of him. Another way to handle the attention seeking child is to make him realize that there are other students who also need the teacher’s attention. He might then realize that he is getting the equal attention that the other children are getting. In this way he may learn to behave in an appropriate way. Say for example when this child sees that the teacher is giving enough attention to the well behaved student he may try to imitate that behavior thus decreasing his negative attention seeking behavior. Another way is to give due credits to the child when he is doing well in class. Give him praise in front of the class. This may make the child realize that he is getting the attention of the teacher when he is doing well in class thus this may make him more motivated in studying his lessons. Instead of investing his time bullying around, he may realize that he may take time on studying his lessons and participate in class. Say for example when the child delivered a good speech in class give him due credit by not just saying that it was wonderful but by further asking the child how he was able to come up with the good speech and that he has to keep it up. Other children may seek attention because they simply want to fell that they are also important. So another intervention would be letting them know that they are important but there are also other students who also need the attention of the teacher. In this way a child may realize that he is not the only student that needs the attention of the teacher. In this way a child may lessen his misbehaviors and learn to consider others. Give the child tasks that you are confident that he can accomplish. If he does, it would make him feel proud about himself and he may fell that the teacher trusts him and that he is important because he was given the task. Another intervention would be, ignore the negative behavior of the child when appropriate. Sometimes children have tantrums, whining, swearing and arguing, and these kinds of behaviors are not harmful to either the child or the other people concerned. This behavior may be ignored and the child may realize that he cannot get attention from this kind of an act thus resulting to the decrease of the negative seeking behavior of the child. A child when he doesn’t get the attention that he needs, he may think of other ways to get the attention from the person that he wants it from. The results were actually positive. I have discovered a lot of things in the case of this child. I learned that a child would really do whatever it takes just to get the attention that he wants. The child would not care if it’s positive or negative attention that he gets as long as he gets that attention then he is happy with it. He would do the same things over and over again if he does not get what he wanted thus we would be on a cycle and the child would not change. With the applied interventions the child’s attitude slowly changed for the better. He was starting to reflect on his actions because he does not misbehave frequently in class. He also became participative in the class. The child’s negative-seeking attention was not really changed but it was somehow slowly decreasing. Changes in attitudes are not that easy to achieve thus it needs patience to be able to achieve the outcome that we wanted. Changes in attitudes does not come overnight thus we need to give time for the child to improve. As the teacher of this child, I learned that my reprimand were not effective as we may got through the same cycle everyday. That if I always give an equal negative attention to the negative-seeking behavior of the child, I might just be tolerating the attitude that he is showing. I also learned that every child is unique. There may be a lot of interventions that are available however this may not be applicable to every child having this kind of problem. As a result of what I learned, I may not have reprimanded the child as I do everyday. The child may just like this kind of attention that he is getting from me but this would not help him change his behavior. The child may just do the same thing everyday. This study may help not just teachers but parents as well who have this kind of child. The children may just need something that they were not able to have either from their teachers or from their parents. A quantity time may not mean a quality time thus what we adults need to look into is the time that we spend with the children. Let us be sensitive to our children’s needs. If the child misbehaves, there might be a corresponding reason for that misbehavior and so we need to know that first before we decide what punishment to give because our reprimands may make the situation worse.

A Detailed Commentary On Act 3 :: essays research papers

Write a detailed commentary on the extract taken from Act 3, Scene 4 When we read ‘King Lear’ for the first time we are presented, on the whole, with a pessimistic view of men and society. In other parts of the play Regan, Gonerill and Edmund define treachery, whereas the character of Kent creates a stark contrast, showing us a strong sense of loyalty by following and supporting Lear throughout his torment. Remembering that Kent was betrayed by Lear in the first scene of the play, this emphasises the goodness of Kent’s character. At the beginning of the extract Lear asks ‘Wilt break my heart?’ In response to this Kent declares ‘I had rather break mine own’. This is just one of many examples in the play where Kent is willing to take Lear’s suffering upon himself. Every time Kent enters we get a feeling of relief because he is there to fight evil, a personification of the rare goodness of mankind. Kent also shows his loyalty and steadfastness for his King in the way in which he tries to shelter him from th e storm. When Kent says that ‘The tyranny of the open night’s too rough for nature to endure’, he is really trying to make Lear think it is the storm that is to blame for his discomfort, although Kent is fully aware of the true reasons for Lear’s pain. In the play ‘King Lear’ grief reaches the utmost depths that any Shakespearean character has ever portrayed. In this particular extract the storm taking place on the heath symbolises and runs parallel with the storm in Lear’s soul. His mind is so wracked with the treachery of his two daughters that he actually finds comfort in nature’s cruel elements. This is conveyed when Lear says that the tempest… “…will not give me leave to ponder On things would hurt me more.'; No matter how much physical discomfort the storm inflicts, Lear feels that in comparison to his mental torment the storm is of little consequence: “This tempest in my mind Doth from my senses take all feeling else Save what beats there.'; At the beginning of the extract, Shakespeare uses Lear’s reference to the ‘contentious storm’ to show us the extent of his suffering. He tells us that the storm… “…invades us to the skin: so ‘tis to thee, But where the greater malady is fixed, The lesser is scarce felt.'; This reference to the word ‘contentious’ also gives us an insight into Lear’s state of mind.

Comparison of Islamic Banking and Conventional Banking Essay

The foundation of Islamic bank is based on the Islamic faith and must stay within the limits of Islamic Law or the Shariah in all of its actions and deeds. The original meaning of the Arabic word Shariah is ‘the way to the source of life’ and is now used to refer to legal system in keeping with the code of behaviour called for by the Holly Qur’an (Koran). Amongst the governing principles of an Islamic bank are : * The absence of interest-based (riba) transactions; * The avoidance of economic activities involving oppression (zulm) * The avoidance of economic activities involving speculation (gharar); * The introduction of an Islamic tax, zakat; * The discouragement of the production of goods and services which contradict the Islamic value (haram) On the other hand, conventional banking is essentially based on the debtor-creditor relationship between the depositors and the bank on one hand, and between the borrowers and the bank on the other. Interest is considered to be the price of credit, reflecting the opportunity cost of money. Islamic law considers a loan to be given or taken, free of charge, to meet any contingency. Thus in Islamic Banking, the creditor should not take advantage of the borrower. When money is lent out on the basis of interest, more often that it leads to some kind of injustice. The first Islamic principle underlying for such kind of transactions is â€Å"deal not unjustly, and ye shall not be dealt with unjustly† [2:279] which explain why commercial banking in an Islamic framework is not based on the debtor-creditor relationship. The other principle pertaining to financial transactions in Islam is that there should not be any reward without taking a risk. This principle is applicable to both labor and capital. As no payment is allowed for labor, unless it is applied to work, there is no reward for capital unless it is exposed to business risk. Thus, financial intermediation in an Islamic framework has been developed on the basis of the above-mentioned principles. Consequently financial relationships in Islam have been participatory in nature.

Muslims in America

Population So far, there are no official, accurate figures concerning the actual number of Muslims living in the United States. Estimates have ranged from as low as less than three million to as high as over six million. This is understandable because the statistics being released by the census bureau do not include religion as a category. As far as the census figures are concerned, therefore, Muslims could have been counted as Asians, Arabs, Africans, or even Europeans (Mujahid). Independent observers believe that the figures being released to media depend on the partiality of the source. For instance, David Harris, executive director of the American Jewish Committee, claimed that the number of Muslims living in the United States as of 2001 did not exceed 2.8 million – a figure which was way below the estimates submitted by several researchers. This statement was immediately contradicted by Ibrahim Hooper. Speaking on behalf of the Council on American-Islamic Relations, Hooper argued that the report which was generated by a review commissioned by the American Jewish Committee was a â€Å"desperate attempt to discount the role of American Muslims.† The debate appears inconclusive since the figures released by Harris and the American Jewish Committee might just prove inaccurate if one considers that the review was done in the aftermath of the 9/11 terrorist attacks – which everybody knows precipitated an anti-Muslim sentiment in the country (Zoll). However, the exact number of the Muslim-American population is not that significant if one’s purpose is to fully understand the Muslim-American community and examine how it has assimilated and contributed to the economic and social development of the United States. They could be over six million or less than two million – what is more important is the quality and the extent of their contribution as well as their desire to exert a sustained effort aimed at increasing the same. Considering the effects of the 9/11 attacks, the commitment of Muslim-Americans to peace and development in the country acquires greater significance. Profile Almost 80% of Muslim Americans are between 16 and 65 years of age. They belong to households with an average membership of five, suggesting a family-oriented culture. Majority of these families live in cosmopolitan centers: California has the highest concentration of Muslim-Americans with 20%, followed by the state of New York (16%), Illinois (8%), and 4% each for the states of Indiana and New Jersey. Michigan, Ohio, Texas, and Virginia each account for three percent of all Muslim-Americans. The fact that they are found in multiethnic and multicultural communities indicates that Muslim-Americans do not have difficulty in living with people with different backgrounds and persuasions. Not all Muslim-Americans are Arabs. In fact, only a minority of about 12% are of Arab descent while 24% originated from South Asia, the majority (42%) being African-Americans. Sixty-seven percent of all Muslim-Americans are immigrants and/or descendants of immigrants. In addition, around 30% of all African-American inmates in the country’s penitentiaries are either Muslims or Muslim converts (Mujahid). Most of the Muslim-Americans are professionals with only a very few venturing in private business. However, the professionals are versatile, making their contributions from different fields. Many of them are serving under the United States Armed Forces. As a matter of fact, the number of Muslim-American servicemen exceeds one percent of the entire population of the armed services of the country. Some – more than 10% – are in the computer and engineering industries, another 8% are employed in the medical field, and some 4% have ventured in the financial field (Mujahid). The Muslim-Americans are not an impoverished people. Although national figures are not currently available, the average income of a Muslim-American household in the state of Illinois was found to be $53,500,.with the Arab Muslims earning the highest average income of $69,000 and the African-American Muslims earning a lower $32,000 a year (Mujahid). In other words, they are good contributors not only to the coffers of the state and federal governments in terms of income taxes but also to private business as far as their purchasing power is concerned, underlying their significant contribution to the overall economy of the country. As a matter of fact, as shown by a study conducted recently by the Detroit-based JWT Advertising, reportedly the biggest advertising company in the country, the purchasing power of the Muslim-American community in the country is estimated at around $170 billion. This is the reason why JWT Advertising is now collaborating with other organizations to assist them in capturing their share of the rather large business of the Muslim-American community. To achieve this objective, the business firms in the Detroit area are now making use of the different aspects of the Muslim culture to win over Muslim customers. In fact, according to the director of trends spotting of JWT, Ann Mack, â€Å"Some marketers – – I am not going to name them specifically – are having Ramadan advertisements,† she says, â€Å"and because they are speaking specifically to these populations, they will appeal, they will resonate and those consumers will tend to gravitate towards these brands† (Elshinnawe). Some companies have been treating this issue seriously. IKEA, a Swedish company engaged in the furniture business even sought the help of the chairman of the American Arab Chamber of Commerce. When consulted, Nasser Baydoun recalled that â€Å"What we were able to do was to teach them how to market to our community.—how does our community get its information, how do they choose which store they go to and how does IKEA create a working staff that is friendly to the community.† Based on this advice, IKEA put together a diversity training program for all its employees, started talking about the needs of Muslims, and required its designers to adapt their product designs to fit the needs and tastes of the Muslim community. All of these changes were aimed specifically at ensnaring the market offered by the Muslim-American community (Elshinnawe). Programs and practices The community takes care of its basic needs. Their religious and educational needs are being served by around 3,000 Islamic centers and mosques scattered all over the country, approximately 500 Islamic Sunday schools, at least 200 Islamic schools and six schools of higher learning. The members of the community are active in spreading the shahadah. In the Illinois area alone, a significant growth was observed. Twenty-five percent of new Muslims in the state came from conversion from other faiths. The Islamic practice of Friday prayers is, however, observed by only about four percent of the community. Observers could not be certain whether this indicates a low religiosity among the Muslims, or whether this is due to the fact that Muslims are not being given a day off from their work to enable them to attend the Friday prayer. As far as tithing is concerned, it is estimated that about $100 million is collected from Muslims every year to go to the coffers of their favored relief organizations for the purpose of helping the less fortunate. Fasting during the month of Ramadan, on the other hand, is practiced by an estimated 47% of the Muslim community (Mujahid). Muslim American Society (MAS) The MAS is a â€Å"charitable, religious, social, cultural, and educational, not-for-profit organization.† It is part of a movement which called on Muslims all over the world to make Islam their â€Å"total way of life.† In the United States, it traces its root to the Muslim Student Asociation (MSA) which was established in 1963 to serve the needs of students and immigrants arriving in the country during the later part the 1950s and the early 1960s. After twenty years, the Islamic Society of North America (ISNA) emerged from the MAS. By 1992, the Muslim American Society was organized to provide better outreach programs and serve the increasing needs of Muslim-Americans. Its mission statement is: â€Å"To build an integrated empowerment process for the American Muslim community through civic education, participation, community outreach, and coalition building; to forge positive relationships with other institutions outside of our community, that will ensure and facilitate the protection of civil rights and liberties for American Muslims and all Americans† (Muslim American Society). The MAS, therefore, is the best evidence of the Muslim-Americans’ desire to fully integrate with the American society and do their best in protecting not only the rights of Muslims but Americans in general, particularly against the negative effects of terrorism. As FBI Director Robert S. Mueller said in a briefing held on February 17, 2004: â€Å"†¦at the outset, I should mention that the Muslim American †¦ communities in the United States have contributed a great deal to our success. And on behalf of the FBI, I would like to thank these communities for their assistance and for their ongoing commitment to preventing acts of terrorism.† Works Cited Elshinnawi, Mohamed. â€Å"US Companies Aim Advertising at Muslim Americans.† Voice of America. 19 September 2007. 30 November 2007. Mujahid, Abdul Malik. (2007). â€Å"Muslims in America: Profile 2001.† 2007. 30 November, 2007 Muslim American Society. 30 November 2007 Zoll, Rachel. â€Å"Group: Muslim Population Overstated.† Number of Muslims in the United States. 22 October 2001. 30 November 2007.            

Keys to Effective Communication Essays

Keys to Effective Communication Essays Keys to Effective Communication Essay Keys to Effective Communication Essay Keys to Effective Communication Name: Institution: Keys to Effective Communication Self The effect of attitudes on communication by communicators is portrayed well in the video. An example of this would be Dr. Blalock who has traits of being confident and educated. The book by Russel and Cohn (2012) portrays him as a cardiologist showing his self-confident nature (Russel Cohn, 2012). The way he carries himself and communicates with the other characters aptly brings out these elements. When Vivien Thomas is portrayed as an ambitious and persistent man It is seen that self-confidence, self-awareness and self-esteem affect the way communicators communicate. Dr. Blalock is sterner and commandeering in his speech, which is because of his personality traits. Even when the other doctors told him that he would fail in the surgical procedure, Dr. Blalock never once doubted himself. Rosenberg (2003) shows in his book how personal traits affect communication (Rosenberg, 2003). Communicators self-monitor their behavior well. The characters are able to change their behavior to suit the given environment. Vivien brings this out well by being able to have somewhat of a dual personality when at work and home. When at work he is always busy learning or performing surgery. He is never seen to have any down time. While at home or with his family, he comes off as being a loving husband, father and son and thus his demeanor changes. Others Over time, the communicators are able to fully understand, respect and adapt to each other, for example, the relationship between Dr. Blalock and Vivien. In the beginning of the video, they were strangers. However, as the video progressed, they grew to have a mutual respect for each other and became more than just colleagues but also friends. When Dr. Blalock passed on, it was evident from Vivien’s mannerisms and expression that he was deeply saddened. The communicators blatantly display such messages in the scenes where Vivien is racially abused, and when he is made to sign in when he enters John Hopkins hospital because of his race. The video is rife with such messages to bring out segregation and the civil rights movement in the United States at that time. Communicators are aware and adapt to their messages of gender, age, race, ethnic background and socio-economic status of others. The communicators bring this out. This is because the video shows that there are issues of gender inequality and racial discrimination. For instance, Harold’s death threats because of the teachers’ strike. Purpose Each communicator’s goal is character development in order to bring out the themes and main story of the video. This is the story of a young and hardworking man who was able to overcome diversity and become the doctor he always wanted to be. Vivien clearly states his purpose in the beginning of the video during his interaction with Dr. Blalock when he asked who he is. Vivien tells the doctor how his dream is to become a doctor, which he eventually achieves. Furthermore, Dr. Blalock gives a speech to make Hopkins better. This achievement is evident as Hopkins is the first hospital to pioneer in cardiac surgery. Dr. Blalock is seen to be very persuasive since he convinces the necessary people that Vivien should be given a pay raise. In addition, he convinces the Saxons that their baby should have the surgery despite the fact that it has never been performed before. Communicators combine cultural understanding with observations to set appropriate communicative goals. This is because Vivien was African American. Dr. Blalock was able to understanding with him when Vivien would tell him about the problems he was facing. He also took note of how others treated Vivien. Context Each communicator has adapted to the communication circumstances and setting. An example is the dialogue between Dr. Blalock and Vivien, which is full of medical jargon when in the setting of the hospital. Each communicator was able to change the way they talked or interacted with their changing environments. Content Whenever communicators are seen trying to put across a point, more often than not, they begin with a back-story that relates to their current situation. For instance, when Dr Blalock is operating on the dog, he relates it to a boy who may have fallen from a tree trying to rescue a cat. This is to show that the work they are currently doing on the animals will be able to save human lives. Furthermore, when Dr. Blalock and Vivien were discussing on how to cure the disease for ‘blue babies’, Vivien related their present situation to the procedure on how they would perform surgery on the dogs and from that, they were able to come up with a way. Finally, how Dr. Blalock passion to do medicine came when he contracted TB as a child. Structure Communicators have not effectively organized the components of their messages, organized their messages to promote credibility, empathy, comprehension, interest, persuasion, and/or inspiration. This is because, in some scenes, in the movie, the doctors use racially derogatory names when referring to Vivien. They have done this by making their messages personal and relatable to people. This is demonstrated when Dr. Taussig persuades Dr. Blalock to help her find a cure for ‘blue babies’. She tells Blalock of how many babies die due to it, and she is confident in her belief that it is curable. Vivien’s father also futilely tries to persuade his son Harold to call off the teachers strike due to his father’s plight. Expression Communicator’s questions are straight to the point, and the answers are clear and concise. This brings out in the beginning of the video when Dr. Blalock is asking Vivien who he is. Yes, the communicators express them effectively. They are able to use non-verbal cues to express how they are feeling even though the other party may or may not notice it. When Dr. Blalock tells Mrs. Saxon about the procedure, she is clenching her hands into a tight fist to show worry and anxiety. She also displays these same emotions when doing the actual procedure and she is paces up and down. Communicators aptly use both verbal and nonverbal delivery to convey their messages for instance during the incident of the smoke drum, it is evident from Dr. Blalock mannerisms and speech that he had surely lost him temper. Furthermore, when Dr. Blalock asks Vivien to pick up the beakers with the clamps, from his expression, he was clearly impressed and intrigued about the person who he had not known very well, and was curious about what other talents he possessed. References Russel, J., Cohn, R. (2012). Something The Lord Made. USA: Book on Demand Publishers Rosenberg, M. B. (2003). Non-violent Communication: A language of life: create your life, your relationships your world in harmony with your values. Encinitas, Calif: Puddle Dancer.

Anglo Saxons essays

Anglo Saxons essays According to the Venerable Bede, the first significant body of Germanic settlers in England had been hired as mercenaries by the British Prince Vortigern during fifth-century struggles for power among British Celts that broke out when Roman colonial troops were withdrawn. After a falling-out with their employer, these Germanic warriors seized British territory in the south of England for themselves and brought their families over the English Channel to settle it. Archaeological evidence also reveals a gradual infiltration of Germanic peoples into England along the rivers of east central England, then a low-lying bayou country that would have been impossible to police. Bede tells us that the Germanic settlers came from Anglian and Saxon regions of continental Europe, within the modern territories of Holland, Southern Denmark, and Western Germany. The settlers brought with them, in their heads, an extensive body of lore encoded in alliterative verse, including versified laws as well as historical and legendary narratives. Some of the settlers could use a runic alphabet to carve brief messages, mostly on wooden sticks, but writing was not used for Old English historical or literary material until the conversion to Christianity, when manuscript technology entered from Rome and Ireland. Old English literature includes a number of works based on native Germanic legend, including the remarkable Beowulf, a complete epic peopled by half-Christian Germanic warriors. The interweaving of Christian elements with native Germanic materials in this work is so thoughtful and intricate that the two cultural strands are very difficult to unravel. Other epic poems in native style use imported Christian narratives. Two of the best, by a poet named Cynewulf, have heroic female protagonists. As in Celtic saga, representation of gender roles in Old English narrative may seem quite strange to a modern reader. In Beowulf, for example, Queen Wealhth...